Agrarian Academic Journal
doi: 10.32406/v8n4/2025/105-118/agrariacad
Sustainable management of Meloidogyne in Chickpea: advances and perspectives for food security. Manejo sustentável de Meloidogyne em Grão-de-Bico: avanços e perspectivas para a segurança alimentar.
José Feliciano Bernardes Neto
1, Douglas de Oliveira Maciel2
1- Instituto Federal Goiano – IF GOIANO e Centro de Excelência em Bioinsumos – CEBIO, GO, Brasil. E-mail: joseneto_agronomia@hotmail.com.br
2- Doutorando, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Genética e Melhoramento de Plantas, Universidade Federal de Goiás – UFG, GO, Brasil.
Abstract
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a legume of global importance, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, due to its nutritional value and adaptability. However, root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) pose significant threats to chickpea cultivation by impairing root function and reducing yield. This review aimed to synthesize recent scientific findings on sustainable strategies for managing Meloidogyne spp. in chickpea. A systematic literature search was conducted in databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, selecting peer-reviewed articles published between 1985 and 2025. The study highlights biological control agents like Trichoderma virens, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Purpureocillium lilacinum, as well as organic amendments, botanical extracts, and crop rotation as effective tools. Advances in genetic resistance and emerging technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9 and nanotechnology are also discussed. The review concludes that integrating these approaches is essential to reduce nematode pressure, ensure food security, and promote the sustainable cultivation of chickpea.
Keywords: Root-knot nematodes. Biocontrol. Genetic resistance. Integrated nematode control.
Resumo
O grão-de-bico (Cicer arietinum L.) é uma leguminosa de relevância mundial, especialmente em regiões áridas e semiáridas, por seu valor nutricional e adaptabilidade. Contudo, os nematoides formadores de galhas (Meloidogyne spp.) representam um grave problema fitossanitário, comprometendo o sistema radicular e reduzindo a produtividade da cultura. Este artigo de revisão teve como objetivo reunir os principais avanços científicos relacionados ao manejo sustentável de Meloidogyne spp. no grão-de-bico. Para isso, foi realizada uma busca sistemática em bases como PubMed, Scopus e Web of Science, com foco em publicações entre 1985 e 2025. Os resultados apontam a eficácia de agentes de controle biológico como Trichoderma virens, Pseudomonas fluorescens e Purpureocillium lilacinum, além de práticas como uso de compostos orgânicos, extratos vegetais e rotação de culturas. Também são discutidos avanços na resistência genética e tecnologias emergentes como CRISPR-Cas9 e nanotecnologia. Conclui-se que a integração dessas estratégias é essencial para reduzir a pressão dos nematoides, garantir a segurança alimentar e promover a sustentabilidade na produção de grão-de-bico.
Palavras-chave: Nematoide-das-galhas. Controle biológico. Resistência genética. Controle integrado de nematoides.
Introduction
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the most economically and nutritionally significant legumes worldwide, cultivated in various regions due to its high protein content and adaptability to adverse edaphoclimatic conditions. This crop plays a fundamental role in food security, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, where its drought tolerance and low water requirements enable efficient production (JUKANTI et al., 2012; FAO, 2022).
Global chickpea production exceeds 17 million tons, with India accounting for approximately 65% of this volume, followed by Australia, Turkey, and the United States (FAO, 2022). In Brazil, although still an emerging crop, chickpea cultivation has expanded in recent years, particularly in the states of Goiás and Minas Gerais, where it has been explored as an alternative for agricultural diversification, crop rotation, and efficient use of marginal lands (SILVA et al., 2019).
However, one of the main challenges for expanding chickpea cultivation in Brazil and other regions is its high susceptibility to plant-parasitic nematodes, particularly root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). The species M. incognita, M. javanica, and M. artiellia are widely distributed across production areas and can significantly reduce productivity, causing yield losses of up to 14% per year by impairing root system development and nutrient uptake (CASTILLO et al., 2008; ZWART et al., 2019). Moreover, the recent detection of Meloidogyne enterolobii in pulses in Brazil has raised additional concerns regarding its potential impact on chickpea (PINTO et al., 2024). Additionally, interactions between nematodes and other soilborne pathogens can result in disease complexes that further exacerbate plant damage (SUMBUL; MAHMOOD, 2019).
Given this scenario, sustainable management strategies have been extensively studied as alternatives to chemical control. The use of biocontrol agents such as Trichoderma virens and Pseudomonas fluorescens, combined with cultural practices such as crop rotation with non-host species, has shown potential in reducing nematode populations (WIN et al., 2016; KHAN et al., 2022). The application of plant extracts, such as neem (Azadirachta indica) seed powder, and organic amendments have also demonstrated promising results in suppressing Meloidogyne javanica, reducing dependence on synthetic nematicides (AHMED et al., 2010; SINGH et al., 2020).
Furthermore, studies highlight the potential of endophytic and antagonistic fungi, such as Glomus spp. and Purpureocillium lilacinum, in the integrated control of nematodes and other root pathogens (ALJUBOORI et al., 2022; JAGADEESWARAN et al., 2024). Bioformulations that combine multiple agents, including rhizobacteria and fungal isolates, have also emerged as promising tools for integrated nematode management (RIZVI et al., 2016; TABATABAEI; SAEEDIZADEH, 2017). Additionally, genetic breeding advancements have played a crucial role in developing cultivars resistant to multiple pathogens, with an emphasis on molecular tools such as transcriptomic analyses for resistance gene identification (CHANNALE et al., 2021; FAISAL et al., 2023; KEFELEGN et al., 2023).
Understanding plant-microorganism interactions has proven essential for developing integrated management strategies, contributing to more sustainable and resilient agricultural systems (WILLE et al., 2019).
In this context, this review article synthesizes the main scientific findings on the interaction between chickpea and Meloidogyne nematodes, exploring sustainable management strategies and identifying gaps that require further investigation. By organizing this knowledge, the study aims to contribute to the development of more efficient and environmentally sustainable agricultural practices, ensuring greater food security and productivity in chickpea cultivation.
Material and methods
This review was conducted using a systematic and rigorous methodology to compile key research studies on the interaction between chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) and root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). Initially, specific keywords such as “chickpea,” “Cicer arietinum,” “Meloidogyne,” “root-knot nematodes,” “nematode management,” and “sustainable agriculture” were defined and used to search for scientific articles in widely recognized academic databases, including the CAPES Periodicals Portal, PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science.
The retrieved studies underwent a selection process based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Peer-reviewed articles addressing the economic impact of nematodes, plant physiology, integrated management strategies, and chickpea resistance to Meloidogyne spp. were prioritized. To ensure data relevance, publications from 1985 to 2025 were included, covering both historical advances and recent discoveries on the topic. This time frame was selected to encompass foundational works, such as those by Sharma & McDonald (1990), and cutting-edge studies like those by Pinto et al. (2024).
The initial screening involved assessing the titles and abstracts of the retrieved articles, excluding those that did not align with the objectives of this review, such as studies focused on other crops or nematodes outside the Meloidogyne genus. Selected articles underwent a full-text review to ensure the quality and relevance of the included information.
The selected studies were categorized into four thematic groups: (i) economic and productive impact of Meloidogyne spp. on chickpea cultivation, (ii) genetic resistance mechanisms identified in Cicer arietinum, (iii) integrated management strategies, including biocontrol, cultural management, and nanotechnology, (iv) future perspectives for developing resistant cultivars and improving management practices.
The information was systematically organized in an electronic spreadsheet, allowing for comparative analysis of scientific findings and identification of knowledge gaps. Studies were also cross validated to identify consistent patterns and divergences among different research contexts (e.g., geographic regions, experimental conditions, and cultivar specificity).
Data analysis prioritized qualitative approaches, highlighting the key findings of each study and emerging trends over the past ten years. This methodological approach facilitated the identification of underexplored areas, contributing to defining future research directions.
The literature used was obtained in compliance with ethical principles and academic guidelines, ensuring data transparency and integrity. All selected studies were appropriately credited, adhering to the journal’s citation standards.
Results and discussion
Impact of Meloidogyne spp. on chickpea production and plant health
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are among the most limiting factors in global chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) production, directly affecting root health and significantly reducing crop productivity. Estimates indicate that Meloidogyne spp.-associated damage can decrease annual chickpea yield by up to 14%, resulting in considerable economic losses (CASTILLO et al., 2008; ZWART et al., 2019). In Brazil, although chickpea cultivation is still expanding, the presence of M. incognita and M. javanica is already a growing concern, particularly in the states of Goiás and Minas Gerais (SILVA et al., 2019). Recent studies also reported the occurrence of M. enterolobii parasitizing pulses, which may pose an additional threat to chickpea cultivation in the country (PINTO et al., 2024).
On a global scale, substantial yield losses have been reported in developing countries, highlighting the socio-economic importance of this issue (SHARMA; MCDONALD, 1990; KEFELEGN et al., 2023). Beyond their direct impact, these nematodes interact with soilborne fungi such as Fusarium oxysporum and Macrophomina phaseolina, exacerbating root damage and establishing disease complexes that further impair nutrient uptake (RIZVI et al., 2012; SUMBUL; MAHMOOD, 2019). This synergistic interaction not only compromises root system functionality but also intensifies symptom severity, as observed in Meloidogyne–Fusarium coinfections (NAVAS-CORTÉS et al., 2008). Moreover, the simultaneous presence of bacterial pathogens such as Xanthomonas campestris can further aggravate the disease complex and reduce plant vigor (SIDDIQUI et al., 2013).
The increasing spread of Meloidogyne species represents a significant threat to global agricultural production, directly affecting key crops essential for food and nutritional security. These plant-parasitic nematodes are responsible for substantial losses in various crops, including legumes, which play a fundamental role in human diets as primary sources of plant-based protein (CARNEIRO et al., 2001; BRITO et al., 2007). Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), one of the most consumed legumes worldwide, is highly vulnerable to Meloidogyne infestations, which compromise both its productivity and nutritional quality (FAO, 2016; ATLASBIG, 2025) (Figure 1).
Figure 1 – Global distribution of Meloidogyne species, chickpea production, and legume protein consumption. Country colors represent the number of reported Meloidogyne species (scale: 1 to ≥10). Red squares indicate national chickpea production (size proportional to thousand tonnes: ■ 200; ■ 600; ■ 1,000). Blue circles represent per capita legume protein consumption (kg/year: ● 5; ● 10; ● 15).
The relationship between Meloidogyne infestations and chickpea production can be observed in countries such as India, China, Turkey, and Brazil, where multiple species of this nematode have been reported in association with agricultural crops (YANG; EISENBACK, 1983; DEVRAN; SOGUT, 2009; KHAN et al., 2022). India, the largest producer and consumer of chickpeas, faces persistent challenges due to the presence of M. incognita, M. javanica, and M. arenaria, which negatively impact productivity and increase reliance on management strategies (KHAN et al., 2022). In China, in addition to these species, M. enterolobii has been reported as an emerging problem with the potential to severely affect legume production (YANG; EISENBACK, 1983). In Brazil, where chickpea production has expanded in recent years, the presence of M. incognita, M. javanica, and M. enterolobii is also a concern for producers and researchers, as these pathogens already impact other high-value crops (CARNEIRO et al., 2001). This nematode diversity reinforces the importance of early detection and regional surveillance to prevent severe outbreaks in new production zones.
The impact of Meloidogyne nematodes on legume production, particularly chickpeas, directly affects the availability of plant-based protein in human diets. According to the FAO (2016), legumes play an essential role in nutrition, especially in countries where animal protein consumption is limited. India, for example, leads global plant protein consumption, with an average per capita intake of 15 kg per year, followed by Brazil, Nigeria, and Mexico, where legume-based diets are also predominant (GFI, 2022; FAS, 2023). However, the expansion of root-knot nematodes in production regions may compromise the availability of these foods, increase production costs and reducing global market supply (ODEPA, 2022). The socioeconomic impact is especially severe among smallholder farmers, who often lack access to diagnostic tools and sustainable management inputs.
The intersection between chickpea production and Meloidogyne incidence is also evident in Turkey and Spain, two of the largest chickpea-producing countries in Europe and the Middle East. Studies indicate that Turkey harbors several species of this nematode, including M. incognita, M. javanica, and M. arenaria, which affect key crops in the country’s agricultural economy (DEVRAN; SOGUT, 2009). Similarly, in Spain, the presence of M. hispanica and M. baetica has been reported as a limiting factor for the cultivation of legumes and other strategic crops (CASTILLO et al., 2008).
Africa, where cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and other legumes play a fundamental role in food security, faces similar challenges. Nigeria and Niger, two of the region’s largest consumers and producers of legumes, have reported severe Meloidogyne spp. infestations, which compromise not only local production but also the export of these commodities (KLEYNHANS, 1991; IBRAHIM et al., 2023). In South Africa, Meloidogyne javanica, M. incognita, and M. arenaria remain a constant threat to various agricultural crops, including legumes (KLEYNHANS, 1991).
Given this scenario, integrated strategies for managing Meloidogyne in chickpea and other legume production are essential. Biological control methods, resistant cultivars, and sustainable agricultural practices are critical for mitigating the impacts of these nematodes and ensuring the continued production of plant-based proteins (FAO, 2016; MORDOR INTELLIGENCE, 2025). Additionally, agricultural policies aimed at supporting small and medium-sized farmers, particularly in the most affected countries, can help minimize losses and ensure the global availability of these strategic food sources (CNA, 2025).
Thus, the correlation between Meloidogyne incidence, chickpea production, and plant protein consumption reinforces the importance of research and phytosanitary management practices. As global demand for plant-based proteins continues to grow, it is crucial to ensure that biotic factors, such as root-knot nematodes, do not compromise food security for millions worldwide.
Detection and diagnosis of phytonematodes
The effectiveness of phytonematode management in chickpea largely depends on the accuracy and speed of detection and diagnosis of Meloidogyne species. Identification based solely on morphological traits can be complex, requiring trained personnel and appropriate laboratory infrastructure (CASTILLO et al., 2003; DAMME et al., 2012). In contrast, molecular approaches, such as the use of specific gene sequences, enable more reliable characterization; however, these methods require resources and technical expertise that are often unavailable in developing regions (EFSA, 2014). In African countries, for example, the morphological and molecular characterization of nematodes associated with chickpea, such as Pratylenchus delattrei and Quinisulcius capitatus, highlights the importance of robust diagnostic methods, especially for guiding appropriate control measures (KEFELEGN et al., 2023).
In these areas, the lack of early diagnosis can lead to the silent spread of nematodes, making control even more challenging and resulting in significant productivity losses. For a key crop like chickpea, these losses directly impact the availability of plant-based protein, as chickpea plays a fundamental role in the diet of populations facing nutritional vulnerability (SHARMA; MCDONALD, 1990). In addition, co-infections with fungal or bacterial pathogens may go unnoticed in the absence of accurate nematode identification, potentially leading to inadequate or ineffective treatment (SIDDIQUI et al., 2013; SUMBUL; MAHMOOD, 2019). Thus, the integration of accessible diagnostic tools and local capacity-building programs is essential to prevent Meloidogyne spp. infestations from compromising the supply of this vital protein source in economically disadvantaged regions. Low-cost, field-adaptable diagnostic kits combined with training for local extension agents could be a turning point in early detection and sustainable nematode control.
Impact of root-knot nematodes on chickpea cultivation
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are among the primary constraints to chickpea (C. arietinum L.) productivity due to their ability to induce gall formation in roots, impairing water and nutrient uptake (SHARMA et al., 1994; CASTILLO et al., 2008). Global yield losses attributed to Meloidogyne spp. infestations are estimated to reach up to 14% annually (ZWART et al., 2019), leading to significant economic impacts, particularly in developing countries. In addition to M. incognita and M. javanica, species such as M. artiellia and M. enterolobii have been reported in key production regions (SIDDIQUI et al., 2013; PINTO et al., 2024). These nematodes not only reduce yield but also compromise root architecture, limit symbiosis with rhizobia, and increase susceptibility to secondary infections (CASTILLO et al., 2008; RIZVI et al., 2016).
Diagnostic challenges and socioeconomic implications
Although molecular and morphological tools for Meloidogyne spp. identification have advanced significantly, many chickpea-producing regions in emerging economies lack the necessary laboratory infrastructure and trained personnel to implement accurate diagnostic procedures (CASTILLO et al., 2003). This diagnostic limitation allows nematodes to persist undetected in fields, increasing infestation rates and plant damage severity. In countries where chickpea serves as a crucial protein source, such as Ethiopia, the absence of early detection strategies threatens local food security (KEFELEGN et al., 2023). Delayed diagnosis also prevents the timely implementation of control measures, increasing reliance on curative rather than preventive strategies. Consequently, ineffective or costly management strategies exacerbate socioeconomic disparities, hindering the adoption of efficient nematode control measures. These limitations are particularly critical for smallholder farmers, who often face additional barriers related to technical assistance, access to biological inputs, and financing (FAO, 2016; CNA, 2025).
Sustainable management strategies
Biological control
The use of beneficial microorganisms has emerged as a promising alternative or complement to synthetic nematicides in the management of Meloidogyne spp. Among the most studied agents are Trichoderma virens and Pseudomonas fluorescens, both of which have demonstrated the ability to reduce nematode populations while promoting root development and enhancing plant resistance (KHAN et al., 2022; PRADHAN et al., 2022). Their mechanisms of action include the production of lytic enzymes (e.g., chitinases and proteases), modulation of the rhizosphere, and induction of systemic acquired resistance, which leads to the upregulation of plant defense genes. In particular, P. fluorescens contributes to improved nutrient uptake – especially manganese – making it especially relevant in low-fertility soils where nutrient availability is a limiting factor.
Other organisms have also shown strong potential in nematode suppression. Purpureocillium lilacinum, for example, parasitizes both eggs and second-stage juveniles of root-knot nematodes, interrupting their life cycle (JAGADEESWARAN et al., 2024). Similarly, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi such as Glomus spp. enhance plant tolerance to abiotic stress by improving water and nutrient uptake, while also promoting root health (ALJUBOORI et al., 2022). Entomopathogenic fungi like Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae have also been reported to infect nematode juveniles, expanding the range of biocontrol options (FAISAL et al., 2023).
Recent studies emphasize the synergistic effects of combining biocontrol agents with organic amendments or botanical extracts. These integrated approaches not only increase the suppression of Meloidogyne spp. but also improve soil health and microbial diversity (RIZVI et al., 2016; KHAN et al., 2021). Comparative trials indicate that biological control alone can reduce nematode populations by 40–70%, though effectiveness depends on soil characteristics, climate conditions, and initial infestation levels (KHAN et al., 2023). Therefore, the strategic integration of microbial agents into broader nematode management programs – alongside genetic and cultural practices – is essential for achieving effective, long-term, and environmentally sustainable control.
Organic amendments and botanicals
The use of organic amendments and plant-based extracts (botanicals) represents a crucial approach to sustainable nematode management. Plant-derived materials such as Calotropis procera and Eichhornia crassipes, as well as residues from Asteraceae species, have demonstrated nematicidal effects by inhibiting egg hatching and impairing juvenile mobility (AHMED et al., 2010; RIZVI et al., 2012). Neem extracts (seed and leaf powder) exhibit strong toxicity against Meloidogyne javanica, significantly reducing gall formation (AHMED et al., 2010). These effects are attributed to the presence of bioactive compounds such as azadirachtin, nimbin, and other secondary metabolites that interfere with nematode neurophysiology and cuticle formation.
Beyond their direct nematicidal effects, these organic amendments enhance soil structure by increasing organic matter content and promoting microbial diversity (SHARMA et al., 1993). Comparative efficacy studies suggest that botanical treatments can reduce nematode populations by up to 50%, depending on concentration and exposure duration (RIZVI et al., 2012). When integrated with agronomic practices such as crop rotation, these treatments expand the control spectrum and improve the overall stability of production systems. This strategy is particularly valuable for low-input agricultural systems, where the use of synthetic nematicides is economically or environmentally unfeasible (SINGH et al., 2020).
Genetic resistance and genomic resources
Developing Meloidogyne-resistant or tolerant chickpea genotypes is a cornerstone of sustainable nematode management, especially in regions with limited access to chemical or biological inputs. Although Cicer arietinum possesses relatively narrow genetic diversity, closely related wild species such as C. reticulatum and C. echinospermum have been identified as valuable sources of resistance genes. These traits can be introgressed into elite cultivars using marker-assisted selection (SHARMA et al., 1994; ZWART et al., 2019; SINGH et al., 2022). Notably, genotypes such as ICC 11152 and ICC 8932 have shown reductions of up to 60% in gall formation, coupled with improved nodulation and yield under nematode pressure (ANSARI et al., 2004). These results highlight the potential of resistant lines not only for pathogen suppression but also for overall agronomic performance.
However, the introgression of resistance from wild species into cultivated chickpea faces several challenges, including linkage drag, cross-incompatibility, and the potential breakdown of resistance due to nematode genetic variability (ABBO et al., 2003). These constraints reinforce the need for complementary approaches, such as genomic selection and molecular breeding.
Advancements in genomic and transcriptomic tools have greatly accelerated the discovery and functional characterization of resistance-related genes. Transcriptome analyses have revealed key defense pathways that can be targeted through marker-assisted breeding and QTL mapping (CHANNALE et al., 2021). In parallel, diversity panels have enabled the identification of accessions that combine nematode resistance with favorable agronomic traits, expanding the range of selection for breeding programs.
Emerging biotechnological tools such as CRISPR/Cas9 offer new opportunities to introduce or enhance resistance traits with high specificity and efficiency (PINTO et al., 2024). However, the adoption of gene-edited cultivars still faces regulatory, technical, and socioeconomic barriers, especially in low-income regions. Therefore, integrating genetic resistance with biological and cultural management practices is essential to delay resistance erosion, ensure field-level efficacy, and promote the long-term sustainability of chickpea production systems.
Cultural practices
Crop rotation with non-host species such as maize, sorghum, sunflower, or cotton has consistently proven effective in reducing Meloidogyne spp. populations in tropical soils, especially under low-input conditions (WIN et al., 2016). Intercropping chickpea with resistant legumes not only suppresses nematode pressure but also promotes crop diversification and enhances overall system resilience (CASTILLO et al., 2008). These practices improve nutrient cycling and disrupt the nematode life cycle by limiting host availability.
Complementary agronomic strategies – such as deep plowing, cover cropping, and optimized irrigation management – further hinder nematode survival at critical developmental stages, particularly during egg hatching and juvenile emergence (RIZVI et al., 2012). The timing and sequence of these interventions are crucial to effectively reducing reinfestation and population buildup.
In addition to crop management techniques, the incorporation of organic amendments and plant residues, particularly from species within the Asteraceae family, contributes to nematode suppression and enhances soil fertility (RIZVI et al., 2012). These residues release bioactive compounds during decomposition, which interfere with nematode development and mobility, while also fostering beneficial microbial diversity in the rhizosphere (PÉREZ et al., 2003).
Botanical extracts, especially neem (Azadirachta indica) seed powder, have also shown strong nematicidal activity and can be integrated into broader management systems (AHMED et al., 2010). When combined with crop rotation and organic inputs, these extracts help improve soil structure, promote beneficial organisms, and maintain nematode populations below economic thresholds (MANI, 1985). Such integrated and low-cost approaches are particularly suitable for smallholder farmers, offering sustainable alternatives to synthetic nematicides and reinforcing agroecosystem resilience (SINGH et al., 2020).
Nanotechnology-based approaches
The application of nanoparticles, particularly zinc oxide (ZnO), has gained attention due to its potential to inhibit M. incognita egg hatching and enhance plant vigor (KHAN et al., 2023). While promising, the large-scale adoption of nanotechnology-based nematode control strategies still requires further research to assess its effects on soil microbiomes, potential environmental impacts, and economic feasibility. Moreover, the standardization of application methods, nanoparticle concentration, and exposure times is essential to ensure consistent efficacy and minimize risks to non-target organisms (KHAN et al., 2023).
Limitations and trade-offs
Despite the effectiveness of cultural practices such as crop rotation and cover cropping, their implementation requires available land and inputs, making them less feasible for smallholder farmers with limited resources. Additionally, soil and climate variability influence the effectiveness of cultural control, necessitating region-specific studies to tailor management strategies to local conditions. The success of these practices also depends on farmers’ access to technical guidance and extension services, which are often lacking in economically vulnerable regions (FAO, 2016).
Participatory research approaches and farmer-led trials have been proposed as viable strategies to adapt cultural practices to diverse agroecological realities, ensuring greater adoption and long-term sustainability (SINGH et al., 2020).
Challenges and future perspectives
Despite significant advances in the sustainable management of Meloidogyne spp. in chickpea cultivation, several critical challenges persist – particularly in developing countries where access to biotechnological resources, diagnostic infrastructure, and technical training remains limited (ABBO et al., 2003). These constraints hinder the widespread adoption of integrated nematode management strategies and delay effective responses to phytosanitary threats. Furthermore, climate change and the expansion of susceptible cropping areas are expected to exacerbate nematode outbreaks, reinforcing the urgent need for investment in breeding programs aimed at developing resistant cultivars (ZWART et al., 2019).
Although multiple control approaches – such as biological control, genetic resistance, organic amendments, and cultural practices – have demonstrated efficacy, their integration under field conditions requires long-term studies to evaluate performance, stability, and cost-effectiveness (KHAN et al., 2023). This integration is further complicated by the heterogeneity of agroecological zones, farmer profiles, and production systems.
Emerging technologies, particularly gene-editing tools like CRISPR/Cas9 and the application of nematicidal nanoparticles, offer new avenues for resistance enhancement and nematode suppression (KHAN et al., 2023). However, these innovations demand additional research to assess their environmental safety, economic feasibility, and reproducibility in different contexts. The lack of harmonized protocols for nanoparticle application, for instance, still limits their large-scale adoption.
Advances in plant-microbe interaction studies, especially involving rhizobacteria and endophytic fungi, also hold promise for refining biological control strategies (WILLE et al., 2019). Understanding the functional mechanisms of these organisms could lead to the development of targeted bioinoculants tailored to chickpea production systems.
Another critical issue is the absence of effective early detection and diagnostic systems. Delayed identification of nematode infestations allows their “silent spread” across fields, leading to increased damage and control costs (CASTILLO et al., 2003; KEFELEGN et al., 2023). This is especially concerning in food-insecure regions where chickpea serves as a primary protein source (SHARMA; MCDONALD, 1990).
From a socioeconomic perspective, public policies that support rural extension, access to resistant cultivars, and dissemination of biological and cultural practices are essential for the success of sustainable nematode control (FAO, 2022). Without these supports, advanced solutions remain concentrated in research institutions and inaccessible to smallholder farmers. Public-private partnerships and regionally adapted management packages could help close this gap and enable inclusive technological transitions.
Given this scenario, future research must prioritize (i) the functional characterization of beneficial microorganisms, (ii) the development and dissemination of resistant chickpea genotypes, and (iii) the safe and standardized application of emerging technologies. The integrated use of genetic resistance, biological control, cultural management, botanical nematicides, and nanotechnology represents the most promising path to ensure the long-term sustainability of chickpea cultivation and contribute to global food security.
Final considerations
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are among the main obstacles to the sustainable production of chickpea (C. arietinum L.), especially in arid and semi-arid regions. This review demonstrated that integrated management – encompassing biological control, cultural practices, genetic improvement, and emerging technologies such as nanotechnology and molecular diagnostics—is essential to mitigate the impacts of these nematodes. Despite recent advances, field-based studies, training programs, and public policies that promote the adoption of these strategies are still required, particularly in regions with limited access to agricultural inputs and technology. The integration of these methods is crucial to ensure food security and the long-term sustainability of chickpea cultivation.
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Received on June 2, 2025
Returned for adjustments on June 25, 2025
Received with adjustments on June 26, 2025
Accepted on June 27, 2025